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As an innovative vaccine delivery technology, vaccine microarray patches could have a meaningful impact on routine immunization coverage in low- and middle-income countries, and vaccine deployment during epidemics and pandemics....

Background: Microarray patches (MAPs) are a promising technology being developed to reduce barriers to vaccine delivery based on needles and syringes (N&S). To address the evidence gap on the public...

There is growing interest from governments, donors and implementing partners to introduce and scale-up digital health interventions to support immunisation service delivery. A multi-country evaluation was performed with the aim...

The Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE) on Immunization held a meeting on 20-22 March 2023. This report summarises the discussions, conclusions and recommendations. It covers the following items: Global...

The global COVID-19 vaccination response provides many lessons on how to better prepare for and respond to future pandemics that require rapid, large-scale vaccination. This document includes a collection of...

The report aims to capture lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic and to highlight the opportunity for more ambitious global action: expanding sustainable access to vaccines for all towards the Immunization...

Partnerships are fundamental to progress in immunization, and this is especially true for human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination, which must be delivered in the context of a broader immunization, sexual and...

The global COVID-19 vaccination rollout is the biggest and fastest in history and no public health intervention compares to it. Under extraordinary time constraints and severe programmatic challenges, in 2021...

This hybrid meeting of the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE) was held from Monday 3 to Thursday 6 October 2022 inclusive. The agenda items included: Session 1...

Pharyngitis, more commonly known as sore throat, is caused by viral and/or bacterial infections. Group A Streptococcus (Strep A) is the most common bacterial cause of pharyngitis. Strep A pharyngitis...

Impetigo is a highly contagious bacterial infection of the superficial layer of skin. Impetigo is caused by group A Streptococcus (Strep A) and Staphylococcus aureus, alone or in combination, with...

Cellulitis is an acute bacterial infection of the dermis and subcutaneous tissue usually found complicating a wound, ulcer, or dermatosis. This article provides guidelines for the surveillance of cellulitis. The...

Invasive group A streptococcal (Strep A) infections occur when Streptococcus pyogenes, also known as beta-hemolytic group A Streptococcus, invades a normally sterile site in the body. This article provides guidelines...

Acute rheumatic fever (ARF) is a multiorgan inflammatory disorder that results from the body’s autoimmune response to pharyngitis or a skin infection caused by Streptococcus pyogenes (Strep A). Acute rheumatic...

Rheumatic heart disease (RHD) is a long-term sequela of acute rheumatic fever (ARF), which classically begins after an untreated or undertreated infection caused by Streptococcus pyogenes (Strep A). RHD develops...

Acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (APSGN) is an immune complex-induced glomerulonephritis that develops as a sequela of streptococcal infections. This article provides guidelines for the surveillance of APSGN due to group A...

Across the Gavi Alliance millions are spent on in-service training and supportive supervision as a primary approach for improving health worker learning and performance management despite weak evidence of impact...

Background Progress towards measles and rubella (MR) elimination has stagnated as countries are unable to reach the required 95% vaccine coverage. Microarray patches (MAPs) are anticipated to offer significant programmatic...

This section contains country experiences on COVID-19 vaccination, from the initial planning to the implementation. These are valuable sources of information on approaches and solutions for some of the common...

The past two decades have seen important progress in access to timely, reliable, affordable, and quality-assured supplies of vaccines of global public health importance. The new vaccines developed are powerful...

Background: A pressing need exists to develop vaccines for neglected diseases, including leishmaniasis. However, the development of new vaccines is dependent on their value to two key players–vaccine developers and...

Background: The “Ending Cholera: A Global Roadmap to 2030” (Roadmap) was launched in October 2017. Following its launch, it became clear that additional evidence is needed to assist countries in...

Historically, clinical development and approval of vaccines have spanned approximately 10 years with only ~16% of vaccine candidates ever receiving market authorisation. The long timelines and the low success rates...

World Health Organisation (WHO) preferred product characteristics describe preferences for product attributes that would help optimise value and use to address global public health needs, with a particular focus on...

As result of the C-19 pandemic renewed attention has been focused on vaccine manufacturing capacity and self-sufficiency. The PROSUR member states (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Paraguay) required...

Background Non-typhoidal salmonella can cause serious, life-threatening invasive infections involving the bloodstream and other normally sterile sites. We aimed to systematically review the prevalence of complications and case-fatality ratio (CFR)...

Background: Non-typhoidal salmonella can cause serious, life-threatening invasive infections involving the bloodstream and other normally sterile sites. We aimed to systematically review the prevalence of complications and case-fatality ratio (CFR)...

Immunization prevents 4 to 5 million deaths annually, primarily among children, but each year 20 million infants do not receive a full course of the most essential basic vaccines. COVID-19...

The European Vaccine Action Plan 2015–2020 has set a course to control, eliminate or eradicate vaccine-preventable diseases in the WHO European Region. The insistence of the Region’s Member States to...

Background: To inform the World Health Organisation’s full value of vaccine assessment for group B Streptococcus (GBS) vaccines, a rapid literature appraisal was conducted to inform the operationalisation of maternal...

Background: Despite group B Streptococcus (GBS) being a leading cause of maternal and infant morbidity and mortality, no vaccine is currently available. To inform vaccine developers, countries, and funders, we...

Introduction The leishmaniases represent a group of parasitic diseases caused by infection with one of several species of Leishmania parasites. Disease presentation varies because of differences in parasite and host...

Immunisation is among the most cost-effective public health interventions available and is estimated to have averted at least 37 million deaths between 2000 and 2019. Since the establishment of the...

The development of vaccines against one or all forms of human leishmaniasis remains hampered by a paucity of investment, at least in part resulting from the lack of well-evidenced and...

Founded in 2017, the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) is an international partnership that finances and coordinates the development of new vaccines to prevent and contain infectious disease epidemics...

Vaccines are recognised as one of the most cost-effective public health interventions available, yet the global vaccine ecosystem is not structured to fully realise their potential to improve health. Systemic...

In September 2020, the World Health Organization, with the advice of the CSCS Task Force, commissioned an assessment of the Covid-19 Supply Chain System (CSCS) focused on three main areas:...

When the Sabin-Aspen Vaccine Science & Policy Group decided in 2019 to consider ways to improve the research and development (R&D) component of the vaccine/vaccination ecosystem, SARS-CoV-2 (formally, severe acute...

The Cholera Roadmap Research Agenda identifies knowledge gaps most important to cholera experts and stakeholders and establishes a prioritised list of research questions that, when answered, will have a significant...

Measles remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, with an estimated 9.7 million cases and more than 140,000 measles-related deaths in 2018. It is one of the most...

ViPS and Ty21a markets are largely focused on the private sector and travellers markets. Given the product characteristics of TCV, it is anticipated that demand for these markets will decrease...

Objective: An independent external evaluation of the International Clinical Epidemiology Network (INCLEN) research programme to emphasise the public health significance of childhood pneumonia in India. Method: An independent evaluation based...

The global vaccine ecosystem does not optimally realise vaccines’ potential to deliver health improvements. With this research effort, Wellcome aims to identify solutions that will improve the vaccine ecosystem, focusing...

The Monitoring & Evaluation/Accountability (M&E/A) framework to assess progress was a critical element of the Global Vaccine Action Plan 2012–2020 (GVAP) and was seen by many as a game changer....

Introduction: The Monitoring & Evaluation/Accountability (M&E/A) framework of the Global Vaccine Action Plan (GVAP) was used to report progress annually to the World Health Assembly (WHA). Methods: Stakeholder feedback was...

Introduction: The Global Vaccine Action Plan (GVAP), unanimously endorsed by the World Health Assembly in 2012, defined an ambitious strategy to improve immunisation. At the end of the decade, significant...

Objectives: To examine the characteristics of existing maternal tetanus immunisation programmes for pregnant women in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and to identify and understand the challenges, barriers and facilitators...

Human visceral leishmaniasis (VL) vaccines are currently under development and there is a need to understand their potential impact on population wide VL incidence. We implement four characteristics from different...

National introduction of PCV in infant routine immunisation in 42 countries – including large ones like India, China and Indonesia – will trigger an increase of demand in excess of...

Prior to the addition of a maternal vaccine onto the National Immunisation Programme, it is important for a country to evaluate their capacity and readiness. This checklist has been developed...

For lifetime protection against diphtheria and tetanus, the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends six doses of diphtheria and tetanus containing vaccines. Td (reduced diphtheria toxoid, ≥2-5 IU) vaccines are currently...

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a leading cause of lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) and hospitalisation in infants and children globally. Many observational studies have found an association between RSV...

Middle income countries have little financial support from donors for vaccine purchases and little vaccine price and market information, hampering their ability to negotiate equitable prices. Since 2014, WHO’s Market...

Background: Vaccines for the control of seasonal influenza are recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO) for use in specific risk groups, but their use requires operational considerations that may...

As of November 2023, 140 World Health Organization (WHO) member states had introduced human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination in their routine immunization schedules. Despite a continuously increasing demand from countries across...

Immunisation has made an enormous contribution to global health. Global vaccination coverage has dramatically improved and mortality rates among children due to vaccine-preventable diseases have been significantly reduced since the...

Immunisation represents one of the most cost-effective means to improve the health and well-being of populations and contribute to sustainable development. Since the inception of the Expanded Programme on Immunisation...

Twelve years after the first HPV vaccine registration, less than half of WHO Member States have introduced HPV vaccine into the routine national immunisation schedule. Introductions are lowest in Gavi...

The Global Vaccine Action Plan 2011–2020 (GVAP) was developed to help realise the vision of the Decade of Vaccines, that all individuals and communities enjoy lives free from vaccine-preventable diseases....

Health workers represent an important target group for seasonal influenza vaccination because of their increased risk of infection as well as the risk of transmitting infection to vulnerable patients in...

In 2017, a total of 8,819 cases of diphtheria were reported worldwide, the most since 2004. However, recent diphtheria epidemiology has not been well described. We analyzed incidence data and...

Market shaping for health products used in lower-income countries strives to benefit public health. As a funder of vaccines, Gavi, The Vaccine Alliance (Gavi) has goals for its market shaping...

MI4A produces vaccine-specific market studies, analyzing global demand and supply prospects for individual vaccines. The studies identify areas of risk for sustainable access to vaccine supply and define mitigating actions....

Background: Rotavirus vaccine use in national immunisation programmes has led to declines in hospital admissions for rotavirus gastroenteritis among children; however, the global impact of rotavirus vaccine introduction has not...

Introduction: Maternal immunisation (MI) with tetanus toxoid containing vaccine, is a safe and cost-effective way of preventing neonatal tetanus. Given the prospect of introducing new maternal vaccines in the near...

WHO recommends that all countries: 1) follow a life course of 6 doses of Diphtheria and Tetanus (D&T)-containing vaccines and 2) replace TT with Td vaccine. As of January 2019,...

The meningococcal vaccine market is diverse and complex, with regional variations in serogroup distribution, significant use outside of routine immunisation, and 29 marketed products targeting various combinations of the six...

For the next five years, the annual BCG vaccine supply is estimated to be ~2X greater than the annual forecasted demand, which is an increase from the 2017 analysis and...

MMGH Consulting GmbH proposes to assist the WHO / IVB in evaluating SAGE’s current scope, objectives, working mechanisms and processes. The evaluation will assess the relevance, effectiveness and quality of...

Background: Streptococcus pneumoniae causes substantial morbidity and mortality among children. The introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV) has the potential to dramatically reduce disease burden. As with any vaccine, it...

In accordance with its mandate to provide guidance to Member States on health policy matters, WHO issues a series of regularly updated position papers on vaccines and combinations of vaccines...

New report outlines pathways to protect mothers and infants from one of the most common causes of severe infant respiratory infections worldwide...

In response to repeated calls from WHO Member States, WHO launched the Market Information for Access to Vaccines (MI4A) initiative to enhance vaccine market transparency and understand global vaccine market...

A midterm review was undertaken to assess progress made by the WHO European Region (the Region) in implementing the European Vaccine Action Plan 2015-2020 (EVAP) as of its mid-point at...

In accordance with its mandate to provide guidance to Member States on health policy matters, WHO issues a series of regularly updated position papers on vaccines and combinations of vaccines...

Over the past decade, several countries across all regions, income groups and procurement methods have been unable to secure sufficient BCG vaccine supply. While the frequency of stock-outs has remained...

From the development of each vaccine to its use in reducing disease, Plotkin’s Vaccines, 7th Edition, provides the expert information you need to provide optimal care to your patients. This...

A National Immunisation Program Review (NIP Review) is a comprehensive external assessment of the performance of a country’s immunisation programme. The number of recommended special-topic NIP assessments, such as those...

The Global Task Force on Cholera Control (GTFCC) is a network of cholera experts, including governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), United Nations agencies, scientific experts and others, who share the belief...

The Regional Strategic Plan for Immunisation (RSPI) for the African region was adopted, in 2014, by the 64th session of the WHO Regional Committee for Africa with the goal of...

Childhood pneumonia is among the leading infectious causes of mortality in children younger than 5 years of age globally. Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is the leading infectious cause of childhood bacterial...

The Government of Lao PDR, after intensive deliberations in the country’s NITAG and ICC and with the consent of all immunisation partners, herewith submits its application for Gavi support for...

Immunization is a success story for global health and development, saving millions of lives every year. Between 2010 and 2018, 23 million deaths were averted with measles vaccine alone. The...

Background: In 2013, the World Health Organisation’s (WHO’s) Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE) recommended that all 126 countries using only oral polio vaccine (OPV) introduce at least 1 dose...

The case-control methodology is frequently used to evaluate vaccine effectiveness post-licensure. The results of such studies provide important insight into the level of protection afforded by vaccines in a ‘real...

Case-control studies are commonly used to evaluate effectiveness of licensed vaccines after deployment in public health programmes. Such studies can provide policy-relevant data on vaccine performance under ‘real world’ conditions,...

Established since 2010, the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (IPAC) is an independent committee of experts which provides external advice to WHO’s Department on Immunization, Vaccines and Biologicals (IVB) on the...